It examines the economics of food production and consumption in Nazi Germany, as well as its use as a justification for war and as a tool for genocide. This is the only comprehensive history of the mythology surrounding Hitler's death; the legends of his survival and escape from Germany; and what the public's continuing fascination and the media's wild theories reveal about our society, historical perspectives and popular culture.
Krygier Publisher: Lulu. He was liberated with a group known as "The Boys". This book is a study in the ethics of war. It is the only work which focuses on the moral dilemmas of resistance and collaboration in Nazi-occupied Europe, including a detailed examination of Jewish resistance.
It presents a comprehensive guide to the harrowing ethical choices that confronted people in response to the German doctrine of collective responsibility: reprisal killings and hostage-taking. Also included: discussion of violations of the Laws of War especially torture by the resistance. This book is a tribute to the memory of Victor Zaslavsky ? In seventeen essaysleading European, American and Russian scholars discuss the theory and the history of totalitarian society with a comparative approach.
They revisit and reassess what Zaslavsky considered the most important project in the latter part of his life: the analysis of Eastern European - especially Soviet societies and their difficult?
The variety of the contributions reflects the diversity of specialists in the volume, but also reveals Zaslavsky? In line with Zaslavsky? Resurrecting this often-violated doctrinal edict, ecclesiastical leaders at the time developed a strategy that protected Mormons within Nazi Germany. Furthermore, as Nelson shows, many Mormon officials strove to fit into the Third Reich by exploiting commonalities with the Nazi state.
German Mormons emphasized a mutual interest in genealogy and a passion for sports. They sent husbands into the Wehrmacht and sons into the Hitler Youth, and they prayed for a German victory when the war began.
They also purged Jewish references from hymnals, lesson plans, and liturgical practices. One American mission president even wrote an article for the official Nazi Party newspaper, extolling parallels between Utah Mormon and German Nazi society.
May 21, —July 28, July 5, —July 22, June 24, —July 15, June 14, —July 8, June 7, —June 30, May 28, —June 17, November 7, —November 8, Liu, B. Liang, J. Author Only , Zhang, D. Finley, T. Rousu, M. Yan, S. Accounting Information Quality and Systematic Risk. Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, 52 1 , 85— Pete Beach, FL. Grace, C.
Podcast on American Fashion. Park, M. Fashion and the Future of Design. A Comparison of 2D vs. Virtual Reality Storefronts. May 1, —December 31, December 31, —August 31, June 30, February —October Smith, E. June —August February —August Furlong, K.
May 30, March 9, Busby, A. Fertig, M. March 8, John C. Horn Lecture. November 9, July 12, —September 29, October 5, —April 6, Fischer, K. November 10, April 24, April 4, Barbarich, T. Miller, K. Pressler, E. Muhammad, A. Wetzel, E.
Shannon, H. McMinn, C. Nentwig, T. Brozek, J. Cassella, S. Maxwell, L. August 2, Basu, S. Valentin, E. Lovett, D. March 19, April 17, Reynolds, G. March Graybill, A. May 5, Maeng, D. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 13 , — April 13, March 21, February 24, Chicago, IL.
Perspectives on Resilience pp. October 22, Zey, S. Benyassine, E. JEEG, 22 4 , — March 20, Dekayir, A. October 15, February 9, November 17, March 25, Haertel, P. University of Auckland, New Zealand. In press. April 20, April 15, Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal, 8 — DOI: January Gardner, S. Fincke, G. London: Routledge. Lawley, Western Australia, AU. May 11, February 15, September 13, Edwards, D. March 14, Research Network Forum Moderator.
March 13, Z Publishing. May 6, March 28, February 21, November 6, October 7, December 10, March 29, Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.
March 27, February 6, All of Old. Nothing Else Ever. Ever Tried. Ever Failed. Portland, OR: Glimmer Train. February 13, German Studies Review, 41 1. February 8, Brakke, K. Medical and Engineering Physics. Edisanter, L. Naval Research Laboratory. June April 7, Freud: Memory and Its Discontents.
April Anomaly, March 16, September 27, August 16, Byrne, C. November 28, November 19, September 5, —November 19, November 4, September 29, —September 30, January 26, November 20, September 28, August 19, August 11, August 9, Grabowski, G. November 2, — November 5, October 27, May 12, Liszt Via Crucis. March 30, December 1, October 9, In Charles DePaolo Ed. Ithaca, New York: Edition Musicus. January 1, —Present.
Music Performance - Freelance, Orchestral Percussionist. December 8, December 3, September 14, September 12, September 10, September 8, December 1, —December 31, October 29, —December 31, October 3, September 24, September 21, February 1, January 1, —December 31, September 20, —September 30, Vodicka, J. Chicago: GIA. August 21, Harrisburg, PA. December 19, —December 20, December 17, December 5, November 5, March 1, —May 6, March 11, February 23, December 1, —February 18, December 24, November 28, —December 3, October 29, August 18, —August 20, Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag.
Faust, C. March 7, February 17, August 29, October 10, Buonanno, A. Souder, O. March 2, Kiso, H. Work, Aging and Retirement, 3 1 , 77— August Chrzanowski, J. March 3, Cole, S. DeWald, G. Toohey, M. Nirenberchik, G. Finstagram: Possible Differences in Motivation.
Stevens, M. Cote, J. Albert, M. August 7, Grau, J. New York: Berghahn Books. November 27, May 13, - May 13, American Ethnologist, 45 3 , — New York: Springer.
Scenic Design for She Loves Me. Lauderdale, FL. Resident Lighting Designer. May 21, —Present. She Kills Monsters. February 22, —March 4, She Loves Me. Theatre Department, Susquehanna University. September —October Scenery Design, She Loves Me. Scenery Design. August —September November 14, —November 15, December 15, Pendley, J. August 8, Cusco, Peru.
January 9, January 14, January 11, Holder, K. Sustainability, 9 10 , March 5, May 14, Buzydlowski, J. Green, T. April 18, Williams, R. Vintage Marketing Differentiation. The Origins of Marketing and Branding Strategies. XXII, Palgrave Macmillan US. February August 1, May — After a brief introduction, more than entries focus on crucial persons, places, events, institutions, and so on.
The entries can more readily be inserted into the historical framework, thanks to a comprehensive chronology and a list of rulers. There is also a long list of abbreviations and acronyms from the Communist and post-Communist eras, which is essential to understanding the entries. An extensive bibliography directs readers to further sources of information. Some very useful sources were produced by the author of this volume. George Sanford, professor of politics at the University of Bristol, is a leading authority on Poland and has written widely on 20th-century history and politics.
The latter may look complicated but, unlike English, have the virtue of generally regular pronunciation. The same applies to most other aspects such as the stress normally falling on the penultimate syllable as well as the pronunciation of the initially awkward-looking combinations of consonants such as rz, cz, or sz.
For a guide to Polish pronunciation, the reader is referred to M. The exceptions are twofold. Firstly, the Anglicized version has clearly become predominant in English usage in a limited number of major cases. The other problem is that place names in Poland or on its borders have changed over historical time.
There are, therefore, Polish, German, Russian, as well as Ukrainian, Belarusan, or Lithuanian equivalents available whose usage often denotes a national preference, if not claim. It is difficult to be entirely consistent, as different powers have dominated territories at different times.
With the emergence of independent Ukrainian, Belarusan, and Lithuanian states, the convention that is most likely to diminish historical hatreds and encourage stability in the region is that the currently dominant power should have its usage preferred, while alternative national forms should be offered as subsidiary alternatives.
Another difficulty is that authors resident abroad, or their publishers, apply varying practices in relation to Polish names and title headings. This introduces inconsistencies into the bibliography. The Piast dynasty consolidates in Greater Poland and conquers Mazowsze.
Adoption of Christianity. Mieszko I annexes West Pomerania. Gniezno Archbishopric founded. Period of feudal disintegration. First Mongol invasion halted despite Polish defeat at Legnica. Teutonic Knights defeated at Grunwald. Promulgation of the Nihil Novi statute. Union of Lublin. The elective monarchy established. Confederation of Warsaw guarantees religious toleration. First Swedish wars.
Truce of Andruszowo. Invading Turks defeated at Chocim. Jan Sobieski smashes the Turks at Vienna. The Swedes invade Poland. Augustus reestablishes himself as king. Convocation Confederation passes constitutional reforms. Russia supports the reactionary Confederation of Radom. First Partition of Poland. Commission for National Education established. The Four-Year Sejm.
Constitution of 3 May passed. Confederation of Targowica and war with Russia. Second Partition of Poland. Third Partition of Poland. Polish Legions fight for revolutionary France and Napoleon. Warsaw occupied by French after the uprising in Central Poland. Duchy of Warsaw established; Napoleonic Code introduced. Massive Polish participation in the Russian Campaign. Warsaw University founded. The January Insurrection.
Abolition of serfdom in the Russian Partition. Habsburgs grant Galicia autonomy. Prussia establishes the Colonization Committee; Polish League founded.
Polish Socialist Party set up. Foundation of National Democratic Party. Revolution in the Russian Partition. Russian Poland occupied by the central powers. Poland regains its independence. Polish Uprisings in Silesia; plebiscites in Warmia and Mazuria. Treaty of Riga secures Poland an extended frontier in the east; the Silesian plebiscite confirms the division of disputed territory in the west. March Constitution promulgated.
President Gabriel Narutowicz assassinated. Nonaggression pact with USSR. Nonaggression pact with Germany. April Constitution passed. The Comintern dissolves the Communist Party of Poland. Faced by the capitulation of the Western powers at Munich, Poland occupies the Polish inhabited areas of Cieszyn Silesia. Nazi-Soviet Pact. Hitler invades Poland. Government-inExile established in Paris. Hitler invades USSR. Warsaw Ghetto Rising.
Warsaw Uprising from August to September. Stalinism modified. Radom, Ursus, and other demonstrations lead to cancellation of proposed price increase. First papal visit to Poland.
Wave of strikes against price increases. Bydgoszcz Incident and Warsaw Agreement. Solidarity Congress. Declaration of State of War; suppression of Solidarity. State of war suspended. Second papal visit. November referendum is a qualified failure. New wave of strikes. Round Table negotiations and Agreement. Civic Committee candidates win 99 of the Senate seats and all their allocated seats in the contractual Sejm election.
Wojciech Jaruzelski elected as president. Tadeusz Mazowiecki confirmed as prime minister. Jaruzelski agrees to resign. Mazowiecki resigns and is replaced as prime minister by J. The first fully free election produces a fragmented Sejm; Jan Olszewski ZCh-N is eventually confirmed as prime minister.
After conflicts over the control of the army and the lustration process, Olszewski resigns. Hanna Suchocka UD becomes prime minister. Treaty signed with Lithuania. EU Madrid summit sets timetable for accession. A new constitution is barely approved in a referendum. Floods ravage western and southern Poland. Ratification of Concordat with Vatican. EU entry negotiations begin. The local government reform emerges with 16 provinces. Reforms of pensions, the health service, and education are initiated.
Poland becomes NATO member. Sixth papal visit. Buzek continues as prime minister heading a minority government when the UW withdraws. Formation of Civic Platform PO.
New electoral law. John Paul pays a short papal visit to his homeland. Final EU entry terms are agreed upon in Copenhagen. It is, however, protected by the Carpathian Mountains to the south and by the Baltic Sea to the north. Likewise, German and Russian threats came from the west and east. Open frontiers also placed a great premium on effective state organization in order to ensure competitive survival. Poland achieved a working balance between the royal power and gentry democracy and maintained itself as a great European state until the 17th century.
The reasons for its subsequent decline are outlined in this introduction and in the dictionary entries. The weakening of the central power through mechanisms such as the elective monarchy and the Liberum Veto created the proverbial Polish anarchy. Aristocratic clans and their numerous gentry hangers-on ruled their bailiwicks while whittling down the royal power necessary to compete with ever stronger Muscovite and Prussian neighbors.
By the end of the 18th century, this process led to the loss of state independence and a threefold partition by Russia, Prussia, and Austria until After the short interlude of interwar independence, Poland, both as a state and as nation, was threatened by German Nazism during World War II and by Soviet communism subsequently.
The country has been able to reinterpret its historical experience in a way that now supports the democratic political system and the civiccultural values desired by the Polish nation. Poland still has a very large economic gap to make up in comparison with its Western partners. Vast social, administrative, and other problems abound, but the framework for a favorable resolution within a few decades is now in place. It is, however, generally agreed that they developed out of West Slav tribes that settled in the Oder and Vistula basins from the 9th century onward.
The partly mythical Piast is held to have established the dynasty named after him some time before the definite emergence of Mieszko I and the Polish state in the middle of the 10th century. By accepting Christianity for himself and for his people in , on the basis of his marriage to the Czech Bohemian princess Dobrava the previous year, Mieszko gained international recognition as Royal Duke of the Polish state.
But the Bohemian connection, as well as bypassing the hostile Germans, turned Poland culturally toward the West. In terms of religious and political values, it was linked to the Vatican and away from Byzantium and the Eastern Orthodoxy of Muscovite Russia. The latter established the Gniezno Archbishopric as the center of the Roman Catholic Church, codified the state administration, and had himself crowned king just before his death in But his successors were weakened and pushed back by continual German invasions and the fissiparous tendencies of their feudal vassals.
A series of Mongol and Tatar Tartar invasions from the east devastated the country on numerous occasions. Even more seriously, Konrad of Mazowsze introduced the Order of Teutonic Knights into northern Poland in in order to protect his northern borders against pagan Prussians.
The Order of Teutonic Knights, however, exterminated most of the latter, seized Polish territory, encouraged German colonization to its religious-military state, and massacred Polish populations. He had himself crowned King in while his son Kazimierz III the Great completed his work in a long and glorious reign from — He was also lucky in that his failure to produce a male heir did not work out badly for Poland. Both were to carry the dual nation to its greatest heights in late medieval and early modern times.
It asserted its suzerainty over the Order of Teutonic Knights, which converted itself into a secular duchy, paying homage to the Polish Crown in The Renaissance period of the late 15th—16th centuries also saw a great flowering of the arts and learning in Poland.
This was the Golden Age of religious toleration in Poland, with humanist values predominating. The Counter-Reformation, however, developed with the appearance of the Jesuits in the middle of the 16th century.
After more than a century and a half of personal dynastic union, Poland and Lithuania were amalgamated into the Commonwealth Rzeczpospolita of both nations by the Union of Lublin of Poland then made the disastrous mistake of making its monarchy fully elective.
This had prevented the development of Royal Absolutism as in Tudor England. But the decentralized estates model of Polish parliamentarianism now divided the dominant szlachta class of magnates and their very large number of noble-born gentry supporters into warring clans.
Their support had to be bid for through concessions and privileges incorporated in a Pacta Conventa. This process eventually reduced the executive royal power to naught, while the elected throne became the plaything of chance and circumstance.
The system, however, worked quite well for a while. Stefan Batory of Transylvania — proved a strong and successful ruler. The throne then went to three successive members of the Catholic branch of the Swedish Vasa Waza dynasty. The church hierarchy, however, accepted papal supremacy and established the Greek Catholic, or Uniate, Church. The Commonwealth was primarily weakened from within, by the growth of Catholic fanaticism during the Counter-Reformation, the decline of gentry manners, and patriotism into an unproductive Sarmatianism and the peculiar, if not unique, balance of political institutions.
This gave them not only control of the local regional Sejms but also overweening influence in the state. Just how harmful this could be was shown during the reign of Jan Kazimierz, elected in The Commonwealth, therefore, could not cope with the major external threats that faced it from every side. It came within a hairsbreadth of being partitioned. But even now the Commonwealth had the capacity of fighting back under effective leadership, such as that of Hetman Jan Czarniecki in the s and Jan Sobieski, who was elected king as result of his smashing victory of Chocim against the Turks.
As the last king of Poland he patronized the arts and was by no means a Russian puppet, although his political influence was weak. The shock caused by this event strengthened the reform movement. It precipitated the establishment of the Commission of National Education and encouraged various other political and social reforms. All this culminated in the work of the Four-Year Sejm of — and the liberal constitution of 3 May Influenced by the French Revolution, the latter was one of the most progressive documents of its time and has remained a potent symbol in subsequent Polish history.
Once again the Polish conservatives formed a confederation, the most infamous in Polish history, of Targowica, to solicit Russian help. But he made cynical use of their enthusiasm. He sent many of them to perish on the Caribbean island of San Domingo, whose black slaves had revolted against French rule, while others later served in Spain.
The only tangible benefit for the Poles was the Duchy of Warsaw, established in out of territories seized by Prussia during the partitions; even that was to be ruled by the king of Saxony.
It was extended two years later with similar lands grabbed by Austria. But it is not certain that the dynastically minded and shortsighted emperor would have resurrected a major independent and progressive Polish state to counterpoise his conservative enemies in Central and Eastern Europe, even if he had been successful.
The Napoleonic epic, nevertheless, made a huge impact on the Polish consciousness. It was particularly strong during the 19th-century struggle for independence, when it was associated with the Romantic tradition. Its bloody suppression was followed by reprisals, mass exile to Siberia, and increasing repression during the reign of Czar Nicholas I. Emigration for political reasons also became widespread. Czartoryski set up what was almost a government-in-exile at the Hotel Lambert in Paris.
The building of railways and industrialization was most developed in the Prussian Partition. The revolutionary struggle was always most strongly nationalist there. The Prussian Government attacked the Roman Catholic Church in the Kulturkampf of the s, encouraged German colonization through bodies such as the Hakata, and attempted to eradicate Polish language and educational facilities.
The social conflict was most acute in Russian controlled areas. The rule of law was weak and industrialization patchier.
The Polish gentry class in the eastern borderlands kresy was ruined by Czarist policy. Political, social, and religious conditions were at their best in Austrian Galicia, though economic development was not. Here the conservatives gained virtual autonomy after and defended Polish interests in the parliament in Vienna.
Galicia thus produced the core of an experienced political and administrative class for independent Poland. But it took almost five years of diplomatic disputes and military conflicts before its frontiers were fully established and recognized. The Poles later constructed their own port at Gdynia.
The final frontier with Germany emerged from Polish uprisings in Silesia and a plebiscite there as well as in Allenstein Olsztyn and Marienwerder. The eastern border that was confirmed by the Treaty of Riga of went well beyond the ethnic Polish confines recommended by Lord Curzon in the line named after him. The complicated and long, drawn out political and military conflicts between Ukrainians, Belarusans, Lithuanians, White and Soviet Russians, and Poles ended in The Poles not only repelled the Soviet advance on Warsaw in the Polish-Soviet War of , but also occupied and gained considerable territory beyond the Curzon Line.
Interwar Poland thus became only two-thirds ethnically Polish. Independent Poland became a parliamentary democracy very similar to the model of the Third French Republic. Its political and ethnic divisions produced a fragmented party system, which was faithfully reflected by the electoral system based on proportional representation. Governments were, therefore, broadly based but insecure and usually short lived. Their conflicts went to the heart of whether Poland should give autonomy to its national minorities or try to Polonize them.
But his schemes were somewhat chimerical at the time, while the rival concept of a unified Polish-dominated state won out on the domestic scene. He did not rule directly but through his Sanacja Moral Reform supporters, many of whom, particularly the colonels, became his ministers.
He failed to modernize the army, to rethink its strategy, or to appreciate the priority of the Nazi German over the Soviet Russian threat after Hitler came to power. His system, although served by able economists such as Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, barely began to industrialize Poland and to alleviate its problems of surplus rural population and dependency on the advanced capitalist economies that exploited its resources.
But his brusque methods lost the confidence of an already irresolute French ally. France had been relied on since the signing of the political and military alliances of , but it now sought a Soviet pact. The inevitable result in the age of realpolitik was the agreement between the two dictators, Hitler and Stalin.
It is impossible to overestimate the effect of World War II on the generation of Poles who lived through it. The Holocaust of Jews and Gypsies Roma is well known, but the Polish intellectual and political elites were next in line for extermination. The general population only figured as slave labor in Nazi plans. Conditions were only marginally better in the Sovietoccupied areas.
The details of how the Western Allies lied on this issue and abandoned their Polish government-in-exile ally after , in order to give priority to the Soviet war effort against Nazi Germany, are covered in the dictionary. These deals also condoned the de facto establishment of Communist rule within Poland, which was consolidated and turning into Stalinism by the time of the election.
Poland under Communist Rule The currently popular argument that Soviet Communist rule was imposed upon Poland from outside is fundamentally true. But a much-delayed socioeconomic revolution was probably a postwar inevitability.
The tragedy was that the postwar division of Europe and the Cold War meant that it should come from the hostile East, under Bolshevik Russian auspices, and not from the democratic West. Nevertheless, the reconstruction policies of — and the social, educational, and health reforms were nationally supported, despite their cynical use by the Communists in their drive to power. Once the Communists had established their monopoly of power by late , they moved on to implement classic Stalinization policies.
A massive industrialization program was accompanied by police terror. Creative artist with an international reputation for her innovations in textiles, tapestries, and sculpture. She achieved fame in the s for creating a new monumental type of tapestry. She subsequently experimented with novel forms of sculpture in both bronze and stone. Her work is housed worldwide in numerous museums and collections.
Major socialist writer and activist. He was highly influential, especially in cooperative movements before, and again after the Communist period, for his theory of nonstate socialism, adapting utopian anarchist traditions to Polish conditions. Collectivization was never pressed very hard in Poland, even in the Stalinist period, with the result that more than 80 percent of the land was always farmed by small family-peasant holdings.
The large agricultural sector of about two million mainly small and inefficient family plots presented democratic Poland with its most serious economic and social problem. As late as , 27 percent of the workforce 4. The real problem was that more than half of the plots were less than 5 hectares in size 20 percent of land tilled ; the average was 6.
However, the countryside is now mechanized, with the previously ubiquitous horse and cart having almost completely vanished into folklore. They have been replaced by 1. The prevailing external assumption that agricultural employment had to be slimmed down to about , to a million, however, met with strong opposition from Polish governments and from violent Poujadist peasants organized by Andrzej Lepper.
The fundamental problems of restructuring and rural development and unemployment were sidestepped in the EU entry negotiations, in order to avoid the political backlash. Fusce eleifend nulla ut sapien placerat dapibus. Mauris diam dolor, volutpat in feugiat eu, sollicitudin pulvinar eros. Vivamus dolor dui, adipiscing eget aliquam eu, tempus eget mauris.
Vestibulum non dui mauris, nec faucibus nisi. Cras ut arcu ipsum. Aenean a venenatis est. Proin erat diam, facilisis varius hendrerit hendrerit, consequat eu justo. Nulla in tempor erat. Showing posts 1 - 1 of 1. View more ». Home Tip: How to add or customize your site logo Tip: How to replace these images with your own. Welcome to our family site This is a great way to keep up to date on your family news.
0コメント